It bargains an in depth research of the character of those rules brought in recent times in Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, and illustrates the similarities and variations in coverage techniques among the six international locations.
This e-book seeks to imagine otherwise approximately what we realize as "global associations" and the way they can paintings larger for the folks who want them such a lot. The speedy upward push within the percentage of foreign-born citizens within the usa because the mids is likely one of the most vital demographic occasions of the earlier fifty years.
Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Intellectual and - download pdf or read online. Totally revised, this re-creation experiences the main up to date and clinically suitable details at the psychological overall healthiness and behavioral difficulties of individuals with highbrow, developmental and studying disabilities, additionally formerly often called psychological retardation. Download PDF sample. Alton Bryant.
Best Online by Jason Artes. Best Online by Jorge Cruise. Gabriele Amorth. Livingston Emeritus. Neil Browne. Beasley Author , Joa Alvin A. Arens Author Randal J. Elder Author. O Neil. Lindeburg PE. Feldman Ph. Jared Vagy DPT. Arthur Conklin. Best Book by Chancellor Williams. Limmer EMT-P. Aschheim DDS. Hill Dr. This book gives a historical perspective on the evolution of thought in development. It uses theory and empirical analysis to present readers with a full picture of how development works, how its successes and failures can be assessed, and how alternatives can be introduced.
The authors demonstrate how diagnostics, design of programs and policies, and impact evaluation can be used to seek new solutions to the suffering and violence caused by development failures. This text is fully engaged with the most cutting edge research in the field, and equips readers with analytical tools for the impact evaluation of development programs and policies, illustrated with numerous examples.
It is underpinned throughout by a wealth of student-friendly features including case studies, quantitative problem sets, end-of-chapter questions, and extensive references.
This unique text aims at helping readers learn about development, think analytically about achievements and alternative options, and be prepared to compete on the development job market. Theory and Practice of Development in the Third World. Large-scale industry was state owned and the state also 9 controlled foreign trade. Imports had to be licensed and export earnings were 30 also channelled through the central state.
The focus on industrial policy was 1 on capital goods such as machinery and materials such as iron and steel. In contrast, during the NEP, agriculture was organized largely 6 through peasant households in village groupings and peasants were able to 7 sell any produce remaining after they had met state targets. From the s onwards, there was increased state expenditure on health and education, with very positive results in these dimensions of human development.
For example, literacy rates for people aged nine years and over rose from 51 per cent in to 81 per cent in Davies This involved the forcible organization of peasant households into collective farms. The economies of scale created by this merging of small-scale producers would, it was argued, help increase agricultural production. In addition, the collectivization process was used as an ideological tool to promote the importance of non-private ownership and to force the richer peasants known as kulaks to give up their land completely.
Another famine in can be attributed largely to the disruption caused by the collectivization process. Just as with the limits to ISI described above pp. In addition, social problems such 7 as alcoholism and crime were increasing as the state was unable 8 to continue supporting the population as it had in the past Kilmister 91 He 2 implemented reform measures termed perestroika, which included an 31 enhanced role for the market within resource allocation. For example, 4 enterprises were allowed to make decisions about what and how they 5 produced goods, rather than following centrally-decided targets.
This 6 economic reform was also associated with greater political freedom 7 throughout the country and also an attempt at greater openness towards the non-communist world through the glasnost approach. The country broke up and 15 republics became 1 independent, although in they formed the Commonwealth of 2 Independent States CIS. The shift to market-oriented economic 3 systems is prevalent throughout the newly-independent republics, and 4 most now operate a form of liberal democracy with regular elections.
From a society dominated by peasant agriculture to a 9 highly-industrialized economy, the Soviet experiment provided some 30 examples of how central planning could be used to promote such 1 economic changes, rather than relying on the market. While there are 2 numerous problems with using Soviet economic statistics from this 3 period see Davies , western estimates of industrial output 4 suggest rates of increase of about 10 per cent per annum in the 51 period —40, and later rates of approximately 7 per cent were not 6 uncommon.
For example, factories were given production targets to 1 meet. As long as the quantity was produced the target was met; little, if any attention was given to quality.
In addition, the Soviet project did not include any recognition of the environmental consequences, leading to very serious environmental damage see Chapter 6. Finally, limitations on human freedom through the extreme brutality of the Stalinist period, political repression and the outlawing of opposition voices throughout, must be recognized. However, while the USSR provided some economic support in the following years, the development strategies adopted by Mao were rather different from those adopted by Lenin and later Stalin.
The Chinese revolution was largely a peasant revolution, and the focus on rural development was paramount during the Maoist period Kilmister This investment was geared largely towards the iron 6 and steel industries and also the energy sector in the inland regions 7 away from the eastern coastal regions Wu The inland focus was also because of the 10 perceived need to protect important infrastructure projects from 1 possible foreign military attack Wei and Ma The quality of industrial products was often poor, and the 1 disruption to agriculture caused by the need to spread rural labour 2 efforts contributed to a famine in This, in turn, prompted 3 widespread rural-urban migration which eventually led to increased 4 state controls on cityward migration.
Peasants were increasingly allowed to produce 9 and sell their own crops, rather than working within a communal 30 system. The Chinese government also decided to move towards 1 market mechanisms in some sectors by opening up parts of the 2 economy to foreign investment.
Foreign investors were allowed to invest in 8 these SEZs and the government offered tax concessions and 9 preferable land rents. The availability of a cheap and educated 40 workforce was also attractive Howell The political system still remains controlled by the Communist Party. Opposition voices are suppressed through controls on television, radio and newspapers. Policing of the internet also takes place, with websites or chatrooms including anti-government sentiments being blocked or closed.
Public displays of anti-government feeling are also restricted. The most well-known of these is the suppression of the pro-democracy demonstrations in Tiananmen Square, Beijing.
Over 1, people were killed during the violent police and army response, and many more were imprisoned. In addition, some revolutionary groups in the 2 South, such as Sendero Luminoso in Peru, have adopted Maoist 3 principles Alexander Many 10 newly-independent nations drew on socialist ideas of development 1 and progress in their focus on the role of the state in organizing and 2 moulding economic activities.
However, most did not fully embrace 31 a socialist ideology in policy-making, not wanting to become too 4 closely aligned with the Soviet Bloc countries of the USSR and 5 Eastern Europe, but also not wanting to remain too politically-linked 6 to previous Western colonial powers. The predominantly rural 51 population of the African nations, also led governments adopting this 6 path to focus on rural development strategies, rather like Mao had 7 done in China Box 3.
The key role of the state in directing 8 development and in owning the means of production, such as 9 factories and plantations, was similar to socialist models elsewhere, 40 but African nations sought to adapt these models to African realities.
The President of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere, wanted to promote development within Tanzania based on African traditions and values, rather than following a western model. In with the Arusha Declaration the policy of ujamaa was declared. In addition, there was a tradition of communal activities, albeit on a much more limited scale than that envisaged under ujamaa.
Initially the policy encouraged peasants to move into ujamaa villages, or for those already resident in villages to increase communal, rather than private production.
The government invested in water supplies, primary education and health provision in these villages. As a result, the number of ujamaa villages increased from 1, in to 5, in These shifts encouraged many White capitalist farmers to leave the country. There was also a policy of nationalization of the plantations producing crops such as sisal and coffee. While assistance was given to peasants in the form of fertilizer and some machinery, overall production remained rather low.
Production targets were rarely met. Peasants spent the majority of their time working on their own private plots, rather than on communal village lands. This was not, however, compatible with government plans for national development. In a policy of compulsory villagization was announced.
In some cases this involved extreme forms of coercion and violence. The Daily News newspaper reported: Mwalimu [Nyerere] has frequently reiterated during the last ten years the importance of people congregating in villages. Such proximity is a necessity of development. For when people abandon their isolation and come together in well-planned and laid out villages, they can be reached by social services, and they can effectively operate in co-operation.
Only then can they begin to develop. Daily News, 15 November , in Hyden Because of production problems, the focus on communal village production was subsequently reduced and peasants were allowed to produce independently. These internal divisions, along with external 8 pressures resulted in the gradual disintegration of the African 91 populist socialist projects. This became more popular in the late s 4 and was a response to the perceived limitations of the African 5 socialism model.
Rather than trying to build development solutions 6 based on the peculiarly African context, the argument was that the 7 Soviet model of economic development and social welfare was applicable in all geographical locations. The Cuban 9 Revolution was held up as an example of how countries in the 20 South could successfully adopt a Soviet-style development path. In reality, however, the state bureaucracy was too weak to 30 implement planning systems following a Soviet model, and there 1 were few companies which could be taken into state ownership.
At independence, Frelimo became the sole legal party and ruled the country along socialist lines. There was a strong focus on improving health and education levels, as adult literacy stood at only 15 per cent in and health facilities were very limited and restricted to urban areas.
During the period —8 a national vaccination campaign reached 95 per cent of the population. The heavy industrial route to development and modernization was followed, while in rural areas state collective farms were organized. Equipment was imported for use in factories and farms, but often it remained unused because of a lack of technological knowledge or spare parts. In the early s, the stability of Mozambique was threatened by military attacks from South Africa.
This destabilization, combined with severe drought and increasing economic problems 40 per cent of government expenditure was on defence , forced the government to look for external help. By Mozambique was forced to accept structural adjustment as the only way to halt the massive economic problems that the country faced. Multi-party elections were held in Mozambique remains one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world Chapter 4.
In addition, opposition military activity often supported 20 by foreign governments meant that creating conditions for stable 1 economic growth were limited. For example, in Mozambique the 2 opposition Renamo organization received funding from South 3 Africa.
Increasing debt and economic problems forced many 4 countries to accept restructuring packages associated with IMF 5 loans Sutton and Zaimeche This shift to market-oriented 6 economies with multi-party democracies has been evident 7 throughout the South Table 3.
Further reading Bradshaw, M. Excellent collection of chapters considering the transitional processes in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Forbes, D.
Although this book is rather dated, it provides a very useful overview of the economic and regional development policies of a number of socialist regimes in the South. While most have now moved away from this form of development, there are many useful examples of how a socialist perspective has been put into development practice. Frank, A. A classic presentation of the dependency approach. Young, C. Useful websites www. Includes information about key Marxist writers and their publications.
Includes sites on African socialism. Worldwide organization of socialist, social democratic and labour parties. This led to some 2 rethinking of how development in terms of improving standards and 3 quality of life was to be achieved. Under this approach, the focus of development 9 policies was to be directly at the poorest people in society, rather 40 than at macro-level policies that would indirectly help the poor.
These basic needs included not only the essentials for physical survival, but also access to services, employment and decision-making to provide a real basis for participation.
Plate 4. Box 4. In addition, a basic needs 5 approach needed public service provision to be expanded and 6 developed to meet the needs of the poor. Meeting the needs 1 of the poor would not only help reduce poverty levels, but also 2 would improve the education and skill levels of the population, with 31 the concomitant potential for contributing to greater economic 4 growth.
Friedmann a: 9 59—66 outlines how the basic needs 40 1 Plate 4. Decentralization The focus on the sub-national scale for development continued into the s and s. In market-led economies, there was a tendency to move away from central government activities and decision-making to a more decentralized approach.
The rationale for adopting decentralization was both economic and political. In political terms, by transferring decision-making to the more local level, people would be able to have a greater say in the decisions made about their services.
This process of decentralization has been a major feature of policy-making in most countries, both North and South. Within a neo-liberal agenda, decentralization is regarded as a way of reducing state control, albeit in some cases just moving policy-making from central government to regional or local government.
As part of the shift from a state-oriented to market-oriented economy in China and transition economies see Chapter 3 , decentralization has been introduced for similar reasons. In terms of service provision, health and education expenditure, for example, was determined centrally and funds were provided to provincial and local governments.
This meant that healthcare was accessible and affordable for the majority of the population. Complicated medical 7 conditions were referred to health centres and hospitals in larger urban areas Chetley As part of the reform process in China, 9 provincial and local governments have been increasingly responsible 20 for raising their own funds to provide services Tang and Bloom 1 This has had the effect of increasing regional inequalities in 2 healthcare provision in China Table 4.
As described 7 below, participation, has become a key element of development 8 theories and practice, but meaningful and widespread participation is 9 much harder to achieve than has been predicted. This has been associated with 7 the move towards neo-liberal, market-led approaches as outlined in 8 Chapter 2. As well as the devolution of elements of power and 9 decision-making to the local state as described in the previous 40 section, the move away from the top-down approaches has been 1 associated in particular with the growth of non-governmental organizations NGOs.
First, however, it is important to realize the range of organizations which can fall under the NGO heading Vakil see Table 4.
There are a number of axes along which NGOs can be divided. For example, NGOs can be very small-scale and operate in only one region or country. At the other extreme would be the very large organizations such as Oxfam and Save the Children Fund which are Northern-based, but have partner organizations throughout the world. Different NGOs will also have different forms of approach, either in terms of the overall development philosophy, or through the types of activities in which they get involved see www.
First, it is argued that NGOs can provide services that are much more appropriate to local communities. Because of the scale 2 of operation and the linkages with local people, they are also 3 able to react more quickly to local demands Green and Matthias 41 Because of the 7 ways in which NGOs are embedded in local communities, it is 8 argued that they have to be accountable to the local people.
This 91 means that local people have a greater say in what activities are 10 carried out, and also that their participation in such activities 1 creates an environment where empowerment is more likely. If 2 such participation is expanded, these activities can help develop 31 stronger civil society and contribute to processes of 4 democratization see below. The NPA refers 2 3 to the neo-liberal approach within 4 the international institutions, such 5 as the World Bank.
This has been particularly the case as governments have reduced spending as part of structural adjustment policies, but may also be because of the weakness of state structures due to war or civil unrest. For example, in India there are at least two million associations and in Ghana are registered. There are numerous examples of how NGOs have been able to provide services for communities when government assistance is not forthcoming or appropriate, and market-provided services are too expensive.
Such NGO activities may include social welfare provision such as housing Box 4. However, the claims regarding NGOs have been revealed as being somewhat overstated. While many improvements can be made, NGOs alone cannot achieve everything that is expected of them. Table 4. These 2 have often been of poor quality and have lacked access to basic services, 31 such as water and sanitation.
The housing 6 provided by VHC is largely bamboo and participants construct the houses 7 themselves. The simple design of a house made of a wood frame with bamboo panels on a platform means that the houses can be constructed in a 9 day. In addition, jobs are created in three panel manufacturing plants and the 20 bamboo is cultivated on sustainable plantations.
For those households unable to afford even low levels of repayment, the NGO has funds from donations allowing them to provide 6 housing for free. Being of bamboo, the houses only last for about 10 years, but 8 they act as an excellent form of shelter in the short term. Services, such as water and 9 electricity are not provided as part of the scheme; residents must work 40 together to lobby local authorities to supply basic urban services.
The kind of power that we often think about is the power to be able to get other people to do what we want, or the power that other people have to make us do something.
It is often claimed Box 4. Power to The ability to see possibilities for change. Power with The power that comes from individuals working together collectively to achieve common goals.
Power within Feelings of self-worth and self-esteem that come from within individuals. This is because empowerment is something that comes from 3 within Townsend et al.
While NGOs may be able to provide 41 a context within which a process of empowerment is possible, it is 5 only individuals who can choose to take those opportunities and to 6 use them. For example, illiteracy is often regarded as an obstacle 7 to participation in waged work and political life. NGOs may be 8 able to provide facilities and teachers to help individuals develop 91 their literacy skills, but individuals themselves have to want to 10 participate and to use their newly-acquired skills.
This does not mean 1 that disadvantage and exclusion are the fault of individuals, there are 2 clearly structural constraints, but it does mean that NGOs cannot be 31 viewed as direct channels for empowerment; rather they can help set 4 up conditions within which individuals and groups can empower 5 themselves.
Participation is usually used as an umbrella term to refer to 4 the involvement of local people in development activities, often 5 NGO based.
However, this participation varies in nature Table 4. Participatory rural appraisal PRA is an approach which many organizations have now adopted Chambers For example, when trying to assess economic status within a village, a purely income-based approach would ask questions about earnings from wages and market activities.
In contrast, PRA approaches to wealth ranking would ask villagers to come up with their own indicators of wealth in the area and then use these to rank household wealth. The methods used are therefore appropriate to the context. PRA techniques have been increasingly adopted in urban settings, using the same principles. Participation can also be used to refer to the involvement of local people in the actual agenda setting of development organizations.
To be fully participatory, the agenda needs to be set by the communities involved, rather than outside agencies deciding on the priorities to be addressed and then working with local people to achieve them. The two previous interpretations of participation can be regarded as contributing to processes of addressing power inequalities in development and also attempting to focus more on grassroots forms of knowledge than external, particularly Northern ones.
The focus on participation as a route to empowerment is linked to this. However, far too often this form of participation is not achieved; instead local people are involved in meetings or contributing labour, but this is not participation in the wider sense which can be linked to empowerment.
It was started in by urban- 7 based development practitioners who set up the Social Work and Research 8 Centre. The name was changed later and it is now run by local people. This includes solar power and hand pumps.
By 4 using this low-cost technology which is easy to maintain and use, Barefoot 5 College has been able to provide services to about villages and over 6 , people. Income is also 2 received by charging for the services it provides. Dependence on external aid assistance Tables 4. In —90 there were 25 NGOs registered 2 with the Ministry of Home Affairs, but by this number had increased 3 to Of course, the actual number of NGOs is likely to be much higher as 41 not all groups will register, but the quantitative shift is very apparent.
Most NGOs focus on service provision such as 8 healthcare or education, or improvements in income-generating capacity. In 91 the context of structural adjustment and the decline in state-provided 10 services, this focus is understandable and important, but it does not 1 necessarily deal with the themes of participation and empowerment.
NGOs are often presented as meeting 4 the needs of the very poorest in society, but in Tanzania in , nearly 60 5 per cent of the registered NGOs were located in Dar es Salaam which is the 6 richest part of the country. Another 10 per cent were based in Arusha and 6 7 per cent in the Kilimanjaro region, both among the wealthier regions. The poorer regions were very poorly served by registered NGOs, leaving them 9 less able to access funds and support.
Such schemes can help marginalized groups to 4 improve their incomes and therefore the health and education of household 5 members. In some cases, feelings of empowerment may also be an outcome. NGO membership was dominated by women from 8 middle-income groups who were older, married and Christian rather than 9 Muslim.
We knew how 51 much it would cost. I would very much like to join, but the 8 problem is time. Broadly it covers activities 3 and organizations that are separate from the state and from the 4 market, but the debates rage about the precise boundaries. This 51 diversity of interpretation contributes to its widespread appeal Van 6 Rooy However, as McIlwaine states in her overview of civil 7 society and development geography: 8 9 While there is little precise agreement as to which activities should be 40 included within civil society, particularly in terms of political and 1 economic associations.
These voices may provide a challenge to the state. However, as Mercer argues, far too often NGOs are assumed to provide these forms of alternative political activity, but in reality this is not achieved. She states that just counting the increase in NGOs does not provide us with a satisfactory measure of expanding civil society. These relations are based on trust and there are expectations regarding how you should behave in these social interactions.
Social capital is regarded as another asset which can be used by individuals or groups to contribute to their economic and social advancement, just as can economic capital such as money and property or human capital education and health. In the case of Santo Domingo Box 4. The settlement began as a squatter settlement in and by there were over 33, residents. The population of Los Manguitos was able to cope with many of the resulting problems by calling on neighbours to help out and also by using local organizations.
Householders who were forced to leave their homes often moved in with neighbours or slept in the local church which was set up as a shelter. In addition, local community groups organized the evacuation process and helped clean up the debris and carry out repairs afterwards.
This was without the assistance of the government or international aid. This mobilization of social capital at times of emergency is an important indication of how these ties can help poor vulnerable communities.
However, links to external organizations, either national or international would help reduce vulnerability to hazards and would also help this community if disaster struck again. At the moment, the bonding capital between individuals in the community is strong and there is evidence of bridging capital through the creation of community organizations. There needs to be more bridging capital, allowing local residents and groups to access money and assistance from outside Los Manguitos.
Peet with Hartwick 41 summarize the arguments of Majid Rahnema in relation to this 5 process: 6 7 Rahnema argued that governments and development institutions 8 became interested because participation was no longer perceived as a 91 threat, was politically and economically attractive, was a good fundraising device, and was in keeping with a move towards the 10 privatisation of development as part of neoliberalism.
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